Marijuana

Cannabis, (also known as “marijuana,” [1] “reefer,” “pot,” “weed,” “grass,” or “ganja” [2] in its herbal form and hashish in its resinous form[3]) is a psychoactive product of the plant Cannabis sativa L. subsp. indica (= C. indica Lam.). The herbal form of the drug consists of dried mature inflorescences and subtending leaves of pistillate (“female”) plants. The resinous form consists primarily of glandular trichomes collected from the same plant material.

 History
Evidence of the inhalation of cannabis smoke can be found as far back as the Neolithic age, as indicated by charred Cannabis seeds found in a ritual brazier at an ancient burial site in present day Romania.[5] The most famous users of cannabis were the ancient Hindus of India and Nepal, and the Hashshashins (hashish eaters) of present day Syria. The herb was called ganjika in Sanskrit (ganja in modern Indian and Nepali languages).[9][10] The ancient drug soma, mentioned in the Vedas as a sacred intoxicating hallucinogen, was sometimes associated with cannabis.[11]

Cannabis was also known to the Assyrians, who discovered its psychoactive properties through the Aryans. Using it in some religious ceremonies, they called it qunubu or the drug for sadness. Cannabis was also introduced by the Aryans to the Scythians and Thracians/Dacians, whose shamans (the kapnobatai – “those who walk on smoke/clouds”) burned cannabis flowers to induce a state of trance. Members of the cult of Dionysus, believed to have originated in Thrace, are also thought to have inhaled cannabis smoke. In 2003, a leather basket filled with Cannabis leaf fragments and seeds was found next to a 2,500 to 2,800 year old mummified shaman in the northwestern Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of China.[12][13]

Cannabis has an ancient history of ritual use and is found in pharmacological cults around the world. Hemp seeds discovered by archaeologists at Pazyryk suggest early ceremonial practices like eating by the Scythians occurred during the 5th to 2nd century BCE, confirming previous historical reports by Herodotus. Some historians and etymologists have claimed that cannabis was used as a religious sacrament by ancient Jews and early Christians. It was also used by Muslims in various Sufi orders as early as the Mamluk period, for example by the Qalandars.[14]. In India and Nepal, it has been used by some of the wandering spiritual sadhus for centuries, and in modern times the Rastafari movement has embraced it as a sacrament.[15] Elders of the modern religious movement known as the Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church consider cannabis to be the Eucharist, claiming it as an oral tradition from Ethiopia dating back to the time of Christ.[16] Like the Rastafari, some modern Gnostic Christian sects have asserted that cannabis is the Tree of Life. Other organized religions founded in the past century that treat cannabis as a sacrament are the THC Ministry,[17] the Way of Infinite Harmony, Cantheism,[18] the Cannabis Assembly[19] and the Church of cognizance. Many individuals also consider their use of cannabis to be spiritual regardless of organized religion. When the ancient Hindus or Vedic “Dharmas” used this drug they would often pray for increased wisdom.
[edit] Medical use
Main article: Medical cannabis
Medical marijuana, in many cases synthetic or extracts of one chemical in marijuana, is a growing but controversial treatment for medical use. The American Marijuana Policy Project, a pro-cannabis organization, contends that cannabis is an ideal therapeutic drug for cancer and AIDS patients, who often suffer from clinical depression, and from nausea and resulting weight loss due to chemotherapy and other aggressive treatments. A recent study by scientists in Italy has also shown that cannabidiol (CBD), a chemical found in marijuana, inhibits growth of cancer cells in animals.[2] The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) or comparable public authorities in Western-Europe, including the Netherlands, however has not approved smoked marijuana for any condition or disease.

A synthetic extract of Cannabis has been shown to relieve symptoms of anorexia in elderly Alzheimer’s patients.[20]

Glaucoma, a condition of increased pressure within the eyeball causing gradual loss of sight, can be treated with medical marijuana to decrease this intraocular pressure. There has been debate for 25 years on the subject. Some data exists, showing a reduction of IOP in glaucoma patients who smoke marijuana,[21] but the effects are short-lived, and the frequency of doses needed to sustain a decreased IOP can cause systemic toxicity. There is also some concern over its use since it can also decrease blood flow to the optic nerve. Marijuana lowers IOP by acting on a cannabinoid receptor on the ciliary body called the CB receptor.[22] Although marijuana is not a good therapeutic choice for glaucoma patients, it may lead researchers to more effective, safer treatments. A promising study shows that agents targeted to ocular CB can reduce IOP in glaucoma patients who have failed other therapies.[23]

Medical marijuana is used for analgesia, or pain relief. “Marijuana is used for analgesia only in the context of a handful of illnesses [e.g., headache, dysentery, menstrual cramps, and depression] that are often cited by marijuana advocates as medical reasons to justify the drug being available as a prescription medication”.[24] It is also reported to be beneficial for treating certain neurological illnesses such as epilepsy, and bipolar disorder.[citation needed] Studies have found that cannabis can relieve tics in patients suffering from OCD and/or Tourette syndrome. Patients treated with marijuana reported a significant decrease in both motor and vocal tics, some of 50% or more.[25][26][27] Some decrease in obsessive-compulsive behavior was also found.[25] A recent study has also concluded that cannabinoids found in cannabis might have the ability to prevent Alzheimer’s disease.[28] THC has been shown to reduce arterial blockages.[29]

A recent epidemiological study funded by the National Institute of Health (NIH) concluded that, “the association of these [lung and upper aerodigestive tract] cancers with marijuana, even long-term or heavy use, is not strong and may be below practically detectable limits.”[30][31] Another use for medical marijuana is movement disorders, though these benefits do not have enough clinical support to regularly use for this purpose. “In the case of multiple sclerosis, IOM acknowledged that marijuana is frequently reported to reduce the muscle spasticity associated with the disease, but then it noted that these abundant anecdotal reports are not well-supported by clinical data. Evidence from animal studies [suggests that there is] a possible role for cannabinoids in the treatment of certain types of epileptic seizures”[citation needed] Medical Use of Marijuana: Policy and Regulatory Issues. The marijuana will numb the nervous system slightly so the body won’t go in to shock. A synthetic version of the major active compound in cannabis, THC, is available in capsule form as the prescription drug dronabinol (Marinol) in many countries. The prescription drug Sativex, an extract of cannabis administered as a sublingual spray has been approved in Canada for the treatment of multiple sclerosis.[32] Dr. William Notcutt states that the use of MS as the disease to study “had everything to do with politics.”[33]
A dried flowered bud of the Cannabis sativa plant.The major biologically active chemical compound in cannabis is Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol, commonly referred to as THC. It has psychoactive and physiological effects when consumed, usually by smoking or ingestion. The minimum amount of THC required to have a perceptible psychoactive effect is about 10 micrograms per kilogram of body weight[4] (which, in practical terms, is a varying amount, dependent upon potency). A related compound, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabivarin, also known as THCV, is produced in appreciable amounts by certain drug strains. This cannabinoid has been described in the popular literature as having shorter-acting, flashier effects than THC, but recent studies suggest that it may actually inhibit the effects of THC. Relatively high levels of THCV are common in African dagga (marijuana), and in hashish from the northwest Himalayas. Humans have been consuming cannabis since prehistory[5], although in the 20th century there was a rise in its use for recreational, religious or spiritual, and medicinal purposes. It is estimated that cannabis is now regularly used by four percent of the world’s adult population.[6]The possession, use, or sale of psychoactive cannabis products became illegal in most parts of the world in the early 20th century. Since then, some countries have intensified the enforcement of cannabis prohibition while others have reduced the priority of enforcement, almost to the point of legalization, as is the case in the Netherlands. The production of cannabis for drug use remains illegal throughout most of the world through the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances, and the 1988 United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, while simple possession of small quantities is either legal, or treated as an addiction rather than a criminal offense in a few countries. The laws in the United States vary from state to state, some having decriminalized the possession of small amounts of marijuana, although it is still a federal crime.

It has been reported that commercial hashish is often no more potent than high quality seedless marijuana.[7] However, carefully produced and screened hashish is up to three times as potent as the highest quality herbal varieties.

New breeding and cultivation techniques
Main article: Cannabis (drug) cultivation
It is often claimed by growers and breeders of herbal cannabis that advances in breeding and cultivation techniques have increased the potency of cannabis since the late 1960s and early ’70s. However, potent seedless marijuana such as “Thai sticks” were already available at that time. In fact, the sinsemilla technique of producing high potency marijuana has been practiced in India for centuries. Sinsemilla (Spanish for without seed), is the dried, seedless inflorescences of female cannabis plants. Because THC production drops off once pollination occurs, the male plants (which produce little THC themselves) are eliminated before they shed pollen to prevent pollination. Advanced cultivation techniques such as hydroponics, cloning, high-intensity artificial lighting, and the sea of green method are frequently employed as a response (in part) to prohibition enforcement efforts that make outdoor cultivation more risky. These intensive horticultural techniques have led to fewer seeds being present in cannabis and a general increase in potency over the past 20 years. The average levels of THC in marijuana sold in United States rose from 3.5 percent in 1988 to 7 percent in 2003 and 8.5 percent in 2006.[48]

Many opponents of cannabis use, both in and out of government, have exaggerated the increases in potency and ramifications thereof. In the United States, government advertisements encourage parents to disregard their own experiences with cannabis when speaking to their children, on the premise that the “pot” of today is significantly stronger, and thus more dangerous, than that which they used in the past.[49] In proposed revisions to cannabis rescheduling in the UK, the government is considering scheduling the more potent cannabis material as a separate, more restricted substance. Many cannabis proponents are vehemently opposed, reasoning that if one can smoke less cannabis to achieve the same effect, then it is safer in the long run than smoking a less potent product.

A Dutch double-blind, randomized, placebo controlled, cross-over study of male volunteers with a self-reported history of regular cannabis use aged 18-45 years concluded that smoking of cannabis , with higher THC reflecting the content levels of netherweed (marijuana with 9-23% THC) as currently sold in coffeeshops in the Netherlands may, lead to higher THC concentrations in serum (the internal dose). Smoking of cannabis with higher THC concentrations leads to an increase of the occurrence of effects particularly among younger or unexperienced cannabis smokers. They do not adapt their smoking to the higher THC. [50] Smoking of cannabis with higher THC concentrations was associated with a dose-related increase of physical effects (such as increase of heart rate, and decrease of blood pressure) and psychomotor effects (such as reacting more slowly, being less concentrated, making more mistakes during performance testing, having less motor control, and experience more drowsiness).

What was well observed in the Dutch study was that the effects based from a single dose, the smoking of one piece of a joint for 20-25 minutes, lasted for more than 8 hours. The reaction time was still significantly slower about 5 hours after smoking. At that time, the THC serum concentration was low, but still present. This means that even when individuals have the impression that their state has returned to baseline and that they can smoke another piece of joint, the effect of the first joint may be still present. When subjects smoke on several occasions per day, accumulation of THC may occur.

Another study showed that 15 mg THC result in no learning whatsoever occurring over a three-trial selective reminding task at 2 hours. In several tasks, delta(9)-THC increased both speed and error rates, reflecting “riskier” speed-accuracy trade-offs. [51]

There are two recognized types of herbal cannabis, “sativa” and “indica”. So-called “sativa” strains are reputed to induce a noticeably more “cerebral” high, while “indica” strains induce more of a body high. These two drug types are often hybridized or crossed with early-maturing (but low in THC) “ruderalis” strains to increase the range in desirable characteristics.
[edit] Methods of human consumption
 
Herbal cannabis “buds”Cannabis is prepared for human consumption in several forms:

Marijuana or ganja: the flowering tops of female plants
Hashish or charas: a concentrated resin composed of glandular trichomes and vegetative debris that has been physically extracted, usually by rubbing, sifting, or with ice
 
HashishKief or kif: 1) the chopped flowering tops of female cannabis plants, often mixed with tobacco; 2) Moroccan hashish produced in the Rif mountains;[52] 3) sifted cannabis trichomes consisting of only the glandular “heads” (often incorrectly referred to as “crystals” or “pollen”) 4) The crystal (trichomes) left at the bottom of a grinder after grinding marijuana; then smoked.
Bhang: a beverage prepared by grinding cannabis leaves in milk and boiling with spices and other ingredients
Honey oil: an oily mixture resulting from chemical extraction or distillation of the THC-rich parts of the plant, THC usually ~ 10-20% and up to 70%[citation needed]
These forms are not exclusive, and mixtures of two or more different forms of cannabis are frequently consumed. Between the many different strains of cannabis and the various ways that it is prepared, there are innumerable variations similar to the wide variety of mixed alcoholic beverages that are consumed.

[edit] Vaporization
A vaporizer heats herbal cannabis to 365–410 °F (185–210 °C), which turns the active ingredients into gas without burning the plant material (the boiling point of THC is 200°C at 0.02 mm Hg pressure, and somewhat higher at standard atmospheric pressure).[53][54] Toxic chemicals are released at much lower levels than by smoking, although this may vary depending on the design of the vaporizer and the temperature at which it is set. A study by MAPS/NORML, using a Volcanotm vaporizer reported 95% THC and no toxins delivered in the vapor. However, an older study using less sophisticated vaporizers found more toxins. The effects from a vaporizer are noticeably different to that of smoking cannabis. Users have reported a more euphoric hallucinogen type high, because the vapor contains more pure THC. [55][56]
[edit] Eating
As an alternative to smoking, cannabis may be consumed orally. Although hashish is sometimes eaten raw or mixed with water, THC and other cannabinoids are more efficiently absorbed into the bloodstream when dissolved in ethanol, or combined with butter or other lipids. The effects of cannabis administered this way take longer to begin, but last longer. They are sometimes perceived as more physical than mental, although there are many claims to the contrary. An oral dose of cannabis is often considered to give a more intense experience than the equivalent dose of smoked cannabis. Some people report unpleasant experiences after ingesting cannabis, because they experience a more intense effect than they are comfortable with.

Smoking cannabis results in a significant loss of THC and other cannabinoids in the exhaled smoke, by decomposition on burning, and in smoke that is not inhaled. In contrast, all of the active constituents enter the body when cannabis is ingested. It has been shown that the primary active component of cannabis, Δ9-THC, is converted to the more psychoactive 11-hydroxy-THC by the liver.[57] Titration to the desired effect by ingestion is much more difficult than through inhalation.

As with other drugs taken orally, it is sometimes customary to fast before eating cannabis to increase the effect, possibly because an empty stomach will enable the THC to enter the bloodstream more quickly. However, some people eat ordinary food before consuming the drug, because eating it on an empty stomach can cause nausea. The time to onset of effects is usually about an hour and may continue for a considerable length of time, whereas the effects of smoking herbal cannabis are almost immediate.
[edit] Other Methods
Cannabis material can be leached in high-proof spirits (often grain alcohol) to create “Green Dragon.” This process is often employed to make use of low-potency stems and leaves.

Cannabis can also be consumed as a tea. Although THC is lipophilic and only slightly water soluble (with a solubility of 2.8 grams per litre[58]), enough THC can be dissolved to make a mildly psychoactive tea. However, water-based infusions are generally considered to be an inefficient use of the herb.

In 2006, hollowed-out gumballs filled with cannabis material and labeled as “Greenades” were distributed by high school students in the United States.[59]
[edit] Seeds
Cannabis seeds (technically called achenes), which are not psychoactive, are high in protein and essential fatty acids, and are readily consumed by many species of birds. They are also consumed by humans, and are a key ingredient in certain traditional recipes in Europe, and elsewhere. In many countries, including the United States and Canada, possession of viable cannabis seeds is illegal.[60]
[edit] Health issue.